What is a Fraudulent Conveyance?
For more than four centuries there have been restrictions on the ability to dispose of property to delay, hinder or defraud creditors and others of their just and lawful remedies. This began in 1571 in England with the Statute of Elizabeth and they are now encapsulated in the Fraudulent Conveyance Act, RSBC 1996, c. 163 (the “FCA”) in British Columbia and across Canada in similar legislation. All such dispositions or transfers by any method are void against any person or the person’s assignee or personal representative whose rights are adversely affected by the transaction. An exception exists for transfers of property for valuable consideration and without knowledge of the collusion or fraud of the transferor.
The absence of lying or deceit does not absolve a defendant from a claim of fraudulent conveyance. The only intent necessary to void transactions under the modern FCA is the intent to put assets out of the reach of creditors and potential creditors. No further dishonest or morally blameworthy intent is required.
Does the FCA Apply in the Context of Estate Matters?
Transactions commonly carried out for estate planning purposes, such as gifts and the settling of trusts and transfers of property into joint tenancy may be caught by the FCA. For example, an estate plan whereby real property was transferred into joint tenancy and a trust was created to hold other assets was cancelled because it had been made for an improper purpose: Antrobus v Antrobus, 2009 BCSC 1341. Similarly, a terminally sick wife’s transfer of her property into joint tenancy with her husband to avoid the claims of her creditors was a fraudulent conveyance: Vancouver Coastal Health Authority v. Moscipan, 2019 BCCA 17.
Creditors and Others
The term “creditors and others” includes present creditors, future creditors and those who might become creditors of a debtor. A plaintiff seeking an order reversing a transfer does not need to show that he or she was a creditor of the transferor at the time of the transaction. It is sufficient if the possible claim was within the contemplation of the transferor: Abakhan & Associates Inc. v. Braydon Investments Ltd, 2008 BCSC 1547; aff’d 2009 BCCA 521.
However, for the purposes of the FCA, a possible claim does not include a claim against the estate of the transferor pursuant to the Wills Estates and Succession Act, SBC 2009, c. 13, (“WESA”). Such will variation claims do not satisfy the test because they do not arise until after the death of the transferor. To be able to use the FCA to successfully attack a transfer, a spouse or child of the transferor must have had a legal or equitable claim against the transferor during his or her lifetime, and the claim must not be trivial: Mawdsley v Meshen, 2010 BCSC 1099; 2012 BCCA 91.For example, in Antrobus the plaintiff had an unjust enrichment claim against her parents while they were alive based on her long-time services to them and their promises that she would receive their estate.
FCA Claim Made to Replenish the Estate
If a spouse or child establishes that a transfer by his or her spouse or parent was a fraudulent conveyance, the asset may be available to satisfy a wills variation claim against the transferor’s estate pursuant to WESA. In effect, the estate will be replenished with the asset which had been fraudulently conveyed away. However, to repeat, this only applies when the FCA claim has the essential foundation of a legal or equitable claim against the transferor existing during his or her lifetime.
Intention and the Badges of Fraud
The crux of a fraudulent conveyance claim is often the intention of the transferor when making the transaction. Estate planning transactions, including settling trusts and transferring assets to the trustee, transferring assets into joint tenancy or into a corporation as part of an estate freeze, and other gifting, are recognized as legitimate transactions unless the court concludes that the transfer was intended to deprive a creditor or other of a just and lawful remedy. Intention is a state of mind and a question of fact to be determined in each case. In circumstances where the impugned transaction was not made for valuable consideration, a presumption of fraud arises, but the presumption may be rebutted by evidence that the transferor did not act in furtherance of an improper purpose.
The so-called badges of fraud are often referred to by the court when deciding whether to draw an inference of fraudulent intent within the meaning of the FCA. The indicia considered may include the state of the transferor’s financial affairs at the time of the transfer, the relationship between the transferor and the transferee, the effect of the transfer on the over-all assets of the transferor, evidence of haste in making the disposition, the timing of the transfer relative to knowledge of a claim against him or her, whether the transferee gave any valuable consideration for the transfer, the transferor remaining in possession and having use of the asset following the transaction, and secrecy in making the transfer.
Evidence that the transferor did not act in furtherance of an improper purpose may include lack of debts or obligations to the claimant or others, a remaining estate sufficient to satisfy any possible claim, an oral or written agreement that the transferor and his or her spouse would keep their assets separate and be able to deal with their assets free from claims by the other, an oral or written agreement that their respective estates would be left to their respective children from prior relationships, knowledge of any such agreement by others, providing for a subsequent spouse or child, other legitimate estate planning purposes such as avoiding future wills variation claims and probate fees and other taxes, and the lack of evidence of a fraudulent intent as opposed to speculation.
Will a Concurrent Valid Purpose Cure the Taint of an Improper Purpose?
The short answer is “No”. There will often be more than one reason for an estate plan. Sometimes estate plans are created to hide improper purposes. The FCA simply says that if made to delay, hinder or defraud, a disposition is void. The authorities clearly establish that dispositions or transfers made in part to insulate an asset from the grasp of a creditor will not be excused by a concurrent lawful purpose, even when the transferor acted on professional advice.